Definition of translation

Translation is often regarded as a project for transferring meaning from onelanguage to another.
As can be seen, there are two key words in thisdefinition, that is, transferring and meaning.
The first key word indicatesthat when translating, we must deal with two languages because translation, inthe standard sense, is a form of interlingual communication that involves aSource Language (SL) and a Target Language (TL), i.e., the language we translatefrom and the language we translate into, respectively.
So, whatever exerciseswe engage ourselves in within the same language belong to what is usuallyreferred to as " intrlalingual communication".
Paraphrase,explanation, interpretation, etc. are all examples of intralingual rather thaninterlingual communication.

The second key term in the above definition tells us that the main concern oftranslators is to capture and convey meaning in interlingual communication.

However, meaning is a complex notion.
Linguists usually divide meaning into denotation( the basic meaning of the word) and connotation ( the shades of meaning thatare sometimes added to the denotation of the word).
For example, the Englishlexical pairs die/ pass away and friend / comrade share the same denotations,but they differ in their connotations, that is, pass away expresses positiveconnotation that do not exist in die, and comrade has a political connotation (i.e., a communist) that is completely missing in friend.
It should be notedthat translators are supposed to capture both denotation and connotation intheir translation.
Because the concept of meaning is a rather thorny one, sometranslation experts often talk about translation as a project for transferringmessages from one language to another.

Discusses different types of translation equivalence

Equivalence is a key concept in the process of translating. In fact, wecannot think of translation without taking equivalence into consideration. Itshould be noted that the notion of equivalence relates to even the ordinarysenses of the verb to translate that is why we are often asked to translate ourfeelings into words and our words into actions, etc. So, the result of any actof translating revolves, in one way or another, around equivalence.


In general, we can speak of three types of equivalence: Formal, Functionaland Ideational equivalence.


Firstly, formal equivalence seeks to capture the form of the SLexpression. Form here relates to the image employed in the SL expression as canbe illustrated by the underlined English idiomatic expression and itsunderlined formal Arabic equivalent below:


The treaty has remained dead letter since then


وقد بقيت المعاهدة حرفا ميتا منذ ذلك الوقت 


Secondly, we have functional equivalence which seeks to capture the functionof the SL expression independently of the image utilized by translating it intoa TL expression that performs the same function . This can be illustrated belowby the underlined Arabic functional equivalent of the English expression above.


وقد بقيت المعاهدة حبرا على ورق منذ ذلك الوقت 


Finally, there is ideational equivalence which aims to convey thecommunicative sense of the SL expression independently of function and form.That is to say, the translator seeks to relay the meaning of the SL expressionregardless of functional and formal equivalence. The following two Arabic translationof the English example involving " deadletter" reflect this type ofequivalence:


ولم يتم تطبيق المعاهدة منذ ذلك الوقت


وقد بقيت المعاهدة غير مفعلة منذ ذلك الوقت

The translation of English stative sentences into Arabic

Stative sentences:


The type of sentence pattern in English is determined by the kind ofverb used in the sentence. Linking or stative verbs give rise to stativesentences in English.


They include the 'copula' be and other copula-like verbssuch as seem, become, look, remain, etc. Such verbs are called linking verbsbecause they link the subjects with their subjective complements, which can benominal, adjectival, or prepositional complements as can be illustrated in thefollowing examples:


Ali is a soldier.


علي جندي


Ali will be happy.


سيكون علي سعيداَ


Ali was in the garden.


كان علي في الحديقة


Ali seems worried.


يبدو ان علياَ قلقٌ


Ali became a merchant.


أصبح علي تاجراً


Ali remained in the field.


بقي علي في الحقل


In terms of translation, Arabic possesses similar linking verbs.Therefore, the translator will normally have no difficulty in relaying Englishsentences involving linking verbs into Arabic. However, there is onecomplication that may create problems, especially for beginning translator. Thatis, the Arabic copula يكون doesnot surface when the time reference is present and the mood is indicative.

Discuss the translatability of non-stative sentences in English into Arabic

Non-StativeSentences

Non-stativesentences involve verbs that designate actions or activities whether they arephysical or mental. The non-stative verbs can be eithertransitive, i.e., they take objects, or intransitive,i.e., they do not take objects.

Followingare two sets of sentences exemplifying transitive and intransitiveverbs along with their Arabic translations:

a)Ali killed the snake.
قتل علي الحية
Mahacleans her room every morning.
تنظف مها غرفتها كل صباح
Themanager will hold a meeting next week.
سيعقد المدير اجتماعا الأسبوع القادم
Theboy kicked the ball hard.
ركل الولد الكرة بقوة
b)The children have gone to school.
ذهب الأطفال إلى المدرسة
I runevery morning.
أجري كل صباح
Theking arrived at the airport last night.
وصل الملك إلى المطار الليلة الماضية
Thebird flew high in the sky.
حلق الطائر عاليا في السماء

The translation of sentence types into English

The translation of sentence types into English 


English sentences are classified into four types:
1- the simple sentence 
2- the compound sentence
3- the complex sentence
4- the compound-complex sentence


First, the simple sentence consists of one and only one independentclause and no subordinate clauses.


Consider the following two sentences along with their Arabic translations:


I will participate in the Parliamentary elections next spring
سأشارك في الانتخابات البرلمانية في الربيع المقبل


Ali quit school and enlisted in the army.
ترك علي المدرسة وانخرط في الجيش


Second, the compound sentence consists of two or more independentclauses and no subordinate clauses.


Consider the following sentencealong with their Arabic translation:


Sami quit university, but Ahmed continued his studies.
لقد ترك سامي الجامعة لكن أحمد إستمر في دراسته


Third, complex sentence consists of one and only one main clause plusone or more subordinate clauses.


Consider the following two sentences along with their Arabic translations:


Mona quit university after she had finished one semester.
لقد تركت منى الجامعة بعد أن اكملت فصلا دراسيا واحدا


Writing the speech took more time than I expected.
لقد اخذت كتابة الخطاب وقتا اكثر مما توقعت


Finally, the compound-complex sentence consists of two or moreindependent clauses, at least one of which is complex.


Consider the following sentencealong with their Arabic translation:


The storm stopped by ten o'clock that morning, and we went to the beachwhere we had spotted a picnic place earlier.
هدأت العاصفة بحلول الساعة العاشرة في ذلك الصباح وتوجهنا إلى الشاطئحيث كنا قد اخترنا مكانا للتنزه

Full Stop or Period

1. Use a full stop at the end of a sentence:

• The man arrived. He sat down.

2. Use full stops with abbreviations (in an abbreviation the last letter of the word and of the abbreviation are not the same):

• Co. (Company)
• etc. (et cetera)
• M.P. (Member of Parliament)

3. Do not use full stops with contractions (in a contraction the last letter of the word and of the contraction are the same):

• Ltd (Limited)
• Dr (Doctor)
• St (Saint)

Comma

A comma in writing is like a pause inside a sentence when speaking. We use commas inside sentences. Commas separate parts of a sentence into logical elements. Commas have no meaning, but they help us to see the structure and therefore the meaning of the sentence. 1. Use a comma between items in a series or list. In a sentence, the last two items usually do not need a comma between them as they are separated by "and". However, if one or both of the last two items are long, a comma may be useful. coffee, tea, sugar, milk, eggs, butter, salt My favourite sports are football, rugby, swimming, boxing and golf. Hunsa was wearing blue jeans, black shoes, his brand new white shirt, and a brown and green cap. 2. Use a comma between three or more adjectives or adverbs. I like the old, brown, wooden table. He bought an old, red, open-top Volkswagen. He ran quickly, quietly and effortlessly. 3. For two adjectives, use a comma where you could use "and". It was a short, simple film. (It was a short and simple film.) I have a big black dog. (I have a big and black dog.) 4. Use a comma for numbers over 999. (In English, commas separate thousands and periods separate decimals. Note that some languages use the opposite system.) 1,000 (one thousand) 1,569 $73,050.75 2,000,000 3,400,500 10.5 (ten point five or ten and a half) - note the use of the, period not comma 5. Use a comma for addresses, some dates, and titles following a name. 911 Avenue Mansion, Petchburi Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand Los Angeles, California November 4, 1948 (but 4 November 1948) Fred Ling, Professor of English 6. Use a comma before or after direct speech. Do not use a comma for reported speech. He said, "I love you." "I love you," he said. He told her that he loved her. 7. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to join two independent clauses. If the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is optional. He didn't want to go, but he went anyway. I want to work as an interpreter, so I am studying Russian at university. She is kind so she helps people. 8. Use commas for parenthetical elements. A "parenthetical element" is any part of a sentence that can be removed without changing the real meaning of the sentence. John Geton, who is chairman of the company, is quite old. Andrew, my wife's brother, cannot come. Andrew (my wife's brother) cannot come. The objective, to find peace in both countries, is hard to reach. 9. Use a comma after an introductory element. A comma is optional for short, simple introductory elements. Rushing to catch the flight, he forgot to take his phone. As the year came to an end, he realised the days were getting shorter. By evening we were getting worried. After a hefty meal cooked by his host's wife, he went to sleep. After a snack he went to sleep. 10. Sentence adverbs (words like however, unfortunately, surprisingly that modify a whole sentence) often require one or two commas, depending on their position in the sentence. However, Anthony did arrive. Anthony, however, did arrive. We were, unfortunately, too late. He had, not surprisingly, lost his temper. 11. An adverbial clause often needs a comma when it comes at the beginning of a sentence (but not at the end of a sentence). If I win the lottery, I will buy a castle. I will buy a castle if I win the lottery. 12. Do not use a comma to separate two complete sentences. In this case, use a full stop (period) or semi-colon. Ram wants to go out. Anthony wants to stay home. Ram wants to go out, Anthony wants to stay home.

Semi-colon

Semi-colon



1. We sometimes use a semi-colon instead of a full stop or period. This is to separate sentences that are grammatically independent but that have closely connected meaning.

• Josef likes coffee; Mary likes tea.
• Tara is a good speaker; she speaks very clearly.
• You did your best; now let's hope you pass the exam.
• Ram wants to go out; Anthony wants to stay home.

Note that in the above examples it is not correct to use a comma instead of the semi-colon.
2. Use a semi-colon as a kind of "super comma". When we have a list of items, we usually separate the items with commas. If the list is complicated, we may prefer to use semi-colons in some cases.

• ABC Investments has offices in five locations: Kensington, London; Brighton & Hove; and Oxford, Cambridge and Manchester.
• Rental cars must be returned on time; with a full tank of petrol; in undamaged condition; and at the same location as they were collected from.

The job of the colon

Colon


The job of the colon is simple: to introduce.

1. Use a colon to introduce a list:

• There are three countries in North America: Mexico, the USA and Canada.
• We can see many things in the sky at night: the moon, stars, planets, comets, planes and even satellites.

2. Actually, you can use a colon to introduce a single item, especially when you want to emphasize that item:

• We were all waiting for the hero of the evening: John.
• There is one thing that he will not accept: stupidity.
• The job of the colon is simple: to introduce.

3. Use a colon to introduce direct speech or a quotation:

• He stood up and said loudly: "Ladies and Gentlemen, please be seated."
• John whispered in my ear: "Have you seen Andrea?"
• As Confucius once wrote: "When words lose their meaning, people lose their freedom."

4. Use a colon to introduce an explanation:

• We had to cancel the party: too many people were sick.
• There is no need to rush: the meeting will be starting one hour late.

5. Use a colon to introduce examples, as shown above. For example, item 1 above reads "Use a colon to introduce a list" and ends with a colon followed by two example sentences.

The job of the Hyphen

Hyphen


A hyphen is a very short horizontal line between words.
Note that there is no space between a hyphen and the character on either side of it.
Do not confuse a hyphen (-) with a dash (-), which is longer.
The rules about hyphens are not fixed. The points below are guidelines rather than rules.

1. Use a hyphen to join words to show that their meaning is linked in some way:

• book-case (or bookcase)
• race-horse (or racehorse)
• pick-me-up

2. Use a hyphen to make compound modifiers before nouns:

• a blue-eyed boy (but The boy was blue eyed.)
• the well-known actor (but The actor is well known.)
• their four-year-old son (but Their son is four years old.)

3. Use a hyphen with certain prefixes. The prefixes all-, ex-, and self- usually need a hyphen:

• all-inclusive
• ex-wife
• self-control

When a prefix comes before a capitalized word, use a hyphen:

• non-English

When a prefix is capitalized, use a hyphen:

• A-frame

4. Use a hyphen when writing numbers 21 to 99, and fractions:

• twenty-one
• one hundred and sixty-five
• two-thirds

5. Use a hyphen to show that a word has been broken at the end of a line (hyphenation):

The directors requested that a more convenient time be arranged.

6. Use a hyphen with "suspended compounds". When we use several very similar compounds together, it may not be necessary to repeat the last part of the compound:

• They need to employ more full- and part-time staff. (not They need to employ more full-time and part-time staff.)
• This rule applies only to 12-, 13- and 14-year olds. (not This rule applies only to 12-year olds, 13-year olds and 14-year olds.)

Christmas Vocabulary

advent: the arrival of someone or something importantAdvent: the coming (or second coming) of Jesus Christ; the month leading up to Christmasangel: a spiritual being acting as a messenger of God (usually shown as a human being with wings)
berry: a small round fruit
Bethlehem: the small town in the Middle East believed to be the birthplace of Jesus Christcandle: a cylinder of wax with a central wick (like string) which burns to produce light 
chimney: a vertical pipe in a house that allows smoke and gases to escape from a fireplace (Father Christmas traditionally enters a house through its chimney) 
Christ: the title of Jesus (also used as His name)Christian: a person who believes in Christianity; also an adjective 
Christmas: the annual Christian festival celebrating the birth of Jesus Christ (Christmas Day is on 25 December) 
Christmas cake: a rich fruit cake covered with white icing, eaten at Christmas
Christmas card: a greetings card that people send to friends and family at ChristmasChristmas carol: a religious song or popular hymn that people sing at ChristmasChristmas Day: 25 December, the birthday of Jesus Christ
Christmas Eve: the evening or day before Christmas Day (24 December)
Christmas holidays: the holiday period for about a week before and after Christmas Day 
Christmas present: a gift or present given at Christmas
Christmas tree: an evergreen tree (often a spruce) that people decorate with lights and ornaments at Christmascracker: a decorated paper tube that makes a sharp noise ("crack!") and releases a small toy when two people pull it apart 
decoration: something that adds beauty; ornament
egg-nog: a traditional Christmas drink made of alcohol with beaten eggs and milk
Father Christmas: an imaginary being who brings presents for children on the night before Christmas Day (also known as Santa Claus) - traditionally an old man with a red suit and white beardfireplace: a partly enclosed space in a house where people light a fire for warmth
frankincense: a gum used for incense, one of the gifts that the three wise men gave to Jesusgold: a yellow precious metal, one of the gifts that the three wise men gave to Jesusholly: an evergreen plant with prickly dark green leaves and red berries 
Jesus: the name of Christ, the central figure of Christianity (believed by Christians to be the Son of God)Joseph: the husband of Mary (the mother of Jesus)
magi: the wise men from the East who brought gifts for the baby Jesusmanger: a trough for food for horses or cattle (used by Mary as a cradle or bed for Jesus)
Mary: the mother of Jesus
mistletoe: a parasitic plant with white berries, traditionally used as a Christmas decorationmyrrh: a gum used for perfume or incense, one of the gifts that the three wise men gave to Jesusnativity: the birth of a personthe Nativity: the birth of Jesus Christ
nativity play:a play that people perform at Christmas based on the birth of Jesus
new year: the start of a year; the period just before and after 1 January
New Year's Day: 1 JanuaryNew Year's Eve: 31 December
ornament: an object that adds beauty to something; a decorationpresent: a thing given to somebody as a gift.
reindeer: a deer with large antlers found in some cold climates (believed to pull the sleigh for Santa Claus or Father Christmas)Santa Claus: an imaginary being who brings presents for children on the night before Christmas Day (also known as Father Christmas) - traditionally an old man with a red suit and white beard (Santa Claus may be based in part on the historical figure of Saint Nicholas.) shepherd: a person who looks after sheep
sleigh: a sledge or light cart on runners pulled by horses or reindeer over snow and icesnow: water vapour from the sky that falls as white flakes and covers the groundstar: a bright point in the night sky which is a large, distant incandescent body like the sunthe star of Bethlehem: the star that announced the birth of Jesus and guided the wise men to find Himtinsel: a decoration consisting of thin strips of shiny metal foil, traditionally used at Christmasturkey: a bird like a large chicken, traditionally eaten at Christmaswhite Christmas: a Christmas with snow on the groundXmas: abbreviation or informal term for Christmas
Christmas Expressions

• Merry Christmas!
• Happy Christmas
• Happy New Year!
• Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year!
• Wishing you a prosperous New Year
• All the best for the coming year
• Seasons Greetings!

Day and Night

There are 24 hours in a day. The day is divided into "day(time)" and "night(-time)". Daytime is from sunrise (this varies, but we can say approximately 6am) to sunset (we can say approximately 6pm). Night-time is from sunset to sunrise.

Every day starts precisely at midnight. AM (Ante-Meridiem = before noon) starts just after midnight. PM (Post-Meridiem=after noon) starts just after midday. This means that 12am and 12pm have no meaning.

This diagram shows the cycle of a 24-hour day and the words we use to describe its parts. The day starts at midnight (at the bottom of the diagram).