Writing skills: Thinking about writing

Writing skills: Thinking about writing

This lesson looks at a few techniques for ‘thinking’ about writing. There are 3 tasks: brainstorming, loop writing and speed writing.

There are 3 tasks but you do not need to do all 3.

Time: Approx. 40 minutes (but this depends on how many of the tasks you want to do in one lesson).

Materials

None – the materials will be dependent on your class/students. However, you may wish to use the examples below the first time you try these techniques.

If possible it would be useful to bring in examples of different types of ‘long’ writing (i.e. letters, articles, reports, essays etc). These do not necessarily have to be ‘real’ examples (although those can be useful) but could be from coursebooks, the Internet, or even from other students (clearly these would need to be ‘good’ models).

Explanation

We often spend time on the nuts and bolts of writing such as sentence or paragraph structure, cohesion, appropriate language and style etc, but often neglect the pieces we want to bolt together. This lesson aims to address this ‘problem’.

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Instructions

Task 1 – Brainstorming

• Usually brainstorming is done in two ways: either students are put into small groups, given the topic and a time limit and told to write their ideas down – then all the groups ideas are collated; or the brainstorming is done as a whole class activity with students shouting out their ideas and the teacher writing these ideas on the board.
• For this task we would like you to try a different technique for brainstorming. Start by writing the topic (or question) on the board. Sit your students in a circle (if possible) and tell them you will give each student 4 seconds to give you an answer. Start at the left of the circle and if the student gives you a response write it on the board and move on to the next student. If a student doesn’t say something within 4 seconds ask the student to move their chair slightly back and move on. Go round the whole class and then start again and repeat the process. On the third round any student who didn’t say anything (in any round) is ‘out’.
• This brainstorming technique ensures that a) most students participate, and b) that the pace remains high.
• Although the first time you use this brainstorming technique you may get little response once the students are used to it (and its rules) you will find that it is quite productive.

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Task 2 – Speed writing

Note: For this activity students do the actual writing individually.

• Make certain that all the students can see the ‘brainstorming’ board.
• Tell the students you are going to give them only 15 minutes (you could give as little as 10 minutes but don’t give more than 20) to write.
• They should concentrate on ideas, not on language, grammar or punctuation.
• They write as quickly as possible and should not stop.
• They cannot cross anything out or correct mistakes during this time.
• If they cannot think of a word or a phrase they should leave a blank space or write it in their own language.
• Once the time is up, shout ‘stop’.
• Students should now work in pairs or small groups and read out what they have written.
• At this stage all the students should just listen.
• Next, as a group (or pair) the students should work through the text correcting mistakes, changing punctuation, translating words or phrases into English, or fill in the blanks.

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Task 3 – Loop writing 

• Loop writing is a way of ensuring paragraphs link together forming a coherent text.
• In another writing lesson in this section Writing an essay on cause and effect the aim of the lesson was developing coherence and cohesion. This task is a continuation of that theme but builds upon the brainstorming and speed writing tasks (stages) in this lesson.
• During the speed writing you will find that students have generated lots of ideas, but that most of these will be at a sentence level or possibly paragraph level. This means that these ideas now need to be structured into a complete text.
• The task can be done either individually or in small groups (3 or 4)
• In groups ask the students to choose 1 piece of writing.
• Now ask them to read through it and link ideas together that have a similar sub-topic.
• Now they should decide which idea (or sentence) will start the piece of writing.
• Using this idea (and the ones that go with it in the same paragraph) they should write the first paragraph.
• Next, they should summarise the first paragraph in one sentence. This sentence is then used to start the second paragraph. Follow the steps used to create the first paragraph and then summarise the second paragraph.
• Use the sentence that summarises the second paragraph as the start of the third paragraph. Continue with these steps until you have completed the writing.
• Read through again and check as a ‘whole’ text.
• If the task is done individually the same steps are followed but there is no discussion between students about what should go where.

Writing skills: formal and informal writing

Writing skills: formal and informal writing

To enable students to break down the different features of formal and informal English by working through a step-by-step text transformation at their own pace.

Materials

One copy for each student of…

1. A lesson on Register (Answer key in the Teacher’s notes)
2. Step by step worksheet (Answer key in “Informal text”)
3. Text to work on (to be given after the lesson) “Informal text” 

Explanation

This material is particularly relevant for the formal requirements of Business English and discursive essay writing (some Exams). After the lesson students can extract a list of rules for both vocabulary and grammatical differences between formal and informal English, which they can take away with them and apply elsewhere. The teacher could encourage them to do this as homework and start the next lesson in groups, drawing up what is remembered onto (A3?) paper. A possible list could be as follows:

Formal features	Informal features
Vocabulary items
Latin based words Uncommon words	Anglo Saxon words (phrasal verbs) Common words
Punctuation
Full words	Abbreviations Contractions
Grammar
Passive constructions Noun phrases Complext sentences	Active constructions Verb phrases Simple sentences

Alternatively, after the lesson, give out a list like the one above and get students to find examples from the text for homework.

Teacher’s notes

Some discussion on “register” is needed at the start in order to place the lesson in real life and let students see the reason for going through such a picky process. Be aware that the students’ first languages might not have the extent of differences between formal and informal language that English does. Discuss written and oral situations where formal register might be appropriate e.g.. business, administration, public notices, academia, discursive essays (such as CPE, IELTS and other exams require). To bring the topic to life why not make a brief reference to the Norman Conquest, when Latin based French was introduced into English along with the aristocracy.

Writing skills: statistical report

Writing skills: statistical report

To teach and practise language relevant to writing a statistical report

Materials

One copy of each of the following worksheets.

• Statistical Report
• Statistical Report Worksheet
• Model Answer
• Text Analysis
• Writing Practice

Time :One hour plus writing practice for homework 

Teacher’s notes

This is a simple text analysis lesson. It is relevant for Business English classes and also for IELTS writing task one. Students must first transfer information from a visual chart into a gapped written report which focuses attention onto the chart. Next, ordering the jumbled sentences of that report raises their awareness of how to group the information so that it is presentable. Next a language analysis of that report covers useful verbs, number phrases, time phrases and conjunctions. Each analysis question is followed by an optional (depending on level) language extension exercise of the language feature that has just been identified in the text.

Steps

1. Give out “Statistical Report” and get students to explain it to each other in pairs
2. Give out “Statistical report worksheet” and allow time to complete individually. Check in pairs.
3. Give out “Model Answer” to work from in the next step.
4. Give out “Text Analysis” and work through it one question at a time.  Break to check in open class before going on to the language analysis after each question.
5. Give out “Writing practice for homework”

Writing skills: Mini saga

Writing skills: Mini saga

Students learn about mini sagas and try to write one themselves.

What is a mini saga?

A mini saga is a piece of writing which has exactly fifty words, not including the title, which can have up to fifteen words. A mini saga has to tell a story and have a beginning, middle and end. It cannot just be a description of something.

The first mini sagas appeared in 1982 in The Sunday Telegraph, an English newspaper. The Sunday Telegraph announced the idea of the mini saga and held a competition for the best ones.

Why use mini sagas?

Mini sagas provide an excellent vehicle for a short writing lesson. This is because:

• they are easy to read
• it is an easy task for the learner to understand
• to the learner, writing fifty words does not sound difficult (not at first!)
• they focus on accuracy (in the editing stage)
• like all creative writing, they have the potential to be very motivatin

Writing skills: Fables

Writing skills: Fables

An enjoyable one-/two-hour lesson as a basis for writing a fable. Students produce an original fable, using narrative target language.

Target language: verbs describing direct speech; use of adverbs and present participles for extra information about the speaker; inversion of subject and verb for dramatic emphasis

Time: Either as a two-hour lesson, two one-hour lessons or a one-hour lesson plus homework.

Teacher’s notes:

The lesson starts on an upbeat so energises a tired writing class. A “Fable swap milling exercise” makes students retell their own fable eight times.  Each repetition should help to increase confidence and fluency and gives students a chance to correct and elaborate. Encourage this. This first step also allows exposure to the target language pinpointed in the analysis stage later. 

Steps:

1. Hand out one of the eight Fables (you may need to repeat them, depending on numbers) and one “Fable titles” / “morals” sheet to each student.  Fold the latter so only the titles are showing. As you do this talk about what a Fable is and ask whether they have heard of ”Aesop”s Fables”.
2. Give them the necessary time to understand and memorise (stress not word for word) the Fable.
3. Students mill and tell their fable to every other student, hearing one and ticking it off their titles list in return.
4. Sit down in pairs and unfold their sheet to match the tales heard with the morals listed. (Give plenty of time for discussion and questions to each other)
5. Explain the stories read well partly due to certain language features in them. Hand out the Analysis worksheet for individual and pair work (see sheet). 
6. Write their own fable (see sheet). Encourage them to make it as serious or funny, modern or traditional as they wish.

Writing skills: Cause and effect

Writing skills: Cause and effect

To bring attention to the need for lexical variation in a good essay and to increase range of cause and effect phrases and topic related vocabulary.

Aims

• To bring attention to the need for lexical variation in a good essay.
• To increase range of cause and effect phrases and topic related vocabulary.
• To provide a lexical resource for future essay writing.

Target language

Cause and effectso/ As a result/ are due to/The consequence of/ Owing to/one effect of/ This is because/ as/ Hence/ consequently/ The effect of/ consequent (levels)/ therefore/ (creates)/ As a result/ For this reason/ Thus/ as a consequence

Lexical variationPopulation/( uninhabitable)/ overcrowding/ teeming with people/ inhabitants/ too dense a population/ over peopled/ crowded with people/ crawling with cars/ overpopulation/ epidemic of people/ most populous nation/ overcrowded

Time: 1 hour plus writing task for homework

Materials (see attached)

1. Cards  (cut up one card for each student)
2. Prediction task  (one copy on an OHP or one copy between two)
3. Reorder following sentences (one copy each)
4. Analysis worksheet (one copy each)
5. Vocabulary extension worksheet (one copy each)
6. Homework sheet (one copy each)
7. Model essay – Answer Key (one copy each)

Lesson steps

1. As a warm-up exercise, give one card, from ‘Cards’, to each student.  (Make sure you are using matching cause and effects).  Tell students to mill until they have found their partner. (5 minutes)
2. Tell the new pairs to then sit down and connect their sentences by introducing a phrase which expresses the relationship of cause and effect. (5 minutes)
3. Pairs read out their sentences and the teacher marks up cause and effect phrases on the board as they come up. (5 minutes)
4. Tell the class they are now going to read some sentences which use (hopefully) some different cause and effect phrases.  They are taken from an essay entitled ‘Describe some of the problems caused by overcrowding in modern cities’ and write this title on the board.  (2 minutes) 
5. Put  ‘Prediction task‘ on the OHP (alternatively give out one copy between two) and cover over all but the top unfinished sentence.  Students guess the ending, shout out their answers and the nearest answer gets a point/ sweet/ counter etc. (15 minutes)
6. Explain again that the prediction task comes from the essay on the board and give out ‘Reorder the following sentences‘ and the ‘Analysis worksheet‘ to complete individually.  Explain that in writing such an essay you need to list a lot of problems of a single cause (overcrowding) so a lot of cause and effect phrases are needed.  Also you would need a lot of words which function as an alternative to the topic word, in this case, ‘overcrowding’. (15 minutes)
7. Be available to help as the students work through the worksheet.  Give out ‘Model essay – Answer Key ‘ and allow students to check through it quickly before looking at it as a class (see teachers’ notes.)  (10)
8. Give out  ‘Vocabulary extension worksheet ‘ explaining that the words on the sheet come from other common essay themes, one of which they will write an essay on for homework.  You could work through this as a class, answering questions about the slight differences in meaning, in order to keep the pace up and finish on a chatty note. (5)
9. Give out ‘Homework sheet ‘ for homework.

 Teacher's notes  (numbers correspond to lesson steps above)

1. If your class doesn’t like moving around, give each pair a complete set of jumbled cards to match up.  However, still limit one sentence to each pair for connecting them with a phrase.
2. Some students’ written work lacks coherence because of a paucity of cause and effect in their ideas.  This step will help focus these students on the need to use clear connections in their written work.
3. The idea here is that if you make the introduction of these phrases fun, students will have a better chance of remembering them (step six gives further comprehension and analytical focus on the target phrases) .
4.  And 8) are simply to prepare for written homework so keep the pace relaxed and chatty and reiterate that the point of their homework is to produce a piece of writing that has a good range of topic vocabulary and cause and effect phrases.

Writing skills: Letter of complaint

Writing skills: Letter of complaint

To encourage the use of phrases which express attitude and emotion in a factual letter.

Time: one hour, with extended language work and homework.

Target language: phrases which express attitude and emotion; phrases of place and direction; collocations connected to road safety 

Materials: Letter of complaint lesson plan, found under 'Related resources' below

Teacher's notes and lesson steps:

1. As a warm up exercise, start the lesson by one student describing the diagram on ‘Dangerous Road’ and their partner trying to draw it. (Fold the handout over so you can’t see the vocabulary exercise). This is a fun start, which will aid comprehension in step 4. Alternately describe the diagram yourself for all to draw. Check for differences.
2. Hand out ‘Dangerous Road’ and complete the vocabulary exercise.
3. Explain that all the phrases come from a letter. Ask students in pairs to decide who wrote the letter, to whom and about what. (A mother of two small children, to The Road and Safety Department of the Local Council, complaining about a dangerous stretch of Road, near where she lives.) Say that you are now all going to read the letter, but that it is jumbled up and has gaps in it.
4. Hand out the ‘Jumbled Letter’ and allow time to fill in the gaps with the vocabulary from step 2. Monitor and, when individuals are ready, hand out ‘Language Analysis’ (the first instruction being to order the sentences). Monitor and check as they work through it. Students may want to pair up to compare answers as they finish.
5. The ‘Language Extension’ exercise is optional and can be done individually, or, to change the pace, as a class. Make it into a game by providing teams with counters to place in the right ‘emotion box’ for each phrase, as they are revealed on an OHP / read out (keep the counter for correct answers etc.).
6. Consolidate step 5 by completing the sentences with the correct phrase.
7. Hand out ‘Writing Practice’ for homework.

Writing skills: news story

Writing skills: news story

To help students produce writing with a higher occurrence of lexical variation, complex sentences and appropriate use of passive structures.

Time: One hour plus homework

Materials

1. Your Own Version - Worksheet
2. Original News Story - Worksheet
3. Language Analysis – How to write a good news story - Worksheet
4. Complex Sentences – a chart - Worksheet
5. Homework
6. Answer Key  

Teacher’s notes

If you’re teaching this as a “one-off” you may want to provide some form of introduction. Give a quick warm up/ orientation to newspapers. Depending on your style of teaching you might consider one of the following:

1. Collect together six newspaper headlines. Black out one word in each. Put the class into two teams and one by one hold/flash up the headlines. The team who guesses the closest word gets the point etc.
2. A quick discussion on the merits of newspapers versus television or radio.
3. Scramble the short sentence in step one on the board and let the students unscramble it to make the story.

1. Write the short sentence from the worksheet Your Own Version' on the board (A youth was sentenced for driving a stolen car). Tell students that this is a news story and and ask how it could be more interesting. (Elicit the answer “more detail!”)
2. Give out ‘Your Own Version’ and allow 15 minutes (more if necessary) for answering the questions and writing the story. Emphasise that they will be making the story more interesting by adding detail. You could give the option of doing this in pairs.
3. Change the pace by getting pairs to tell each other their versions. They can use any means necessary to keep their audience’s interest, but hopefully they will do it by including relevant details and animated telling.
4. Give out the ‘Original News Story’ and allow time for them to compare for differences. Round off this step by sharing some of the differences in an open class discussion and then move on to asking open class questions about the language used in the original news stor.

Notice the following:

1. The variety of vocabulary;
2. The use of some passive sentences;
3. Long complex sentences – sometimes one sentence for a whole paragraph.

5. Tell your students that these features (a,b,c) help make a good news story. Give out the ‘Language Analysis’ (2 sheets) and explain that working through these will help them identify the language you are talking about. Monitor and check as you desire and get students to compare their complex sentences to answers in the original news story.
6. You can give out ‘Complex sentences – a chart’ either to help with step 5 or afterwards for future reference for their homework.
7. Give out their Homework.

Writing skills: advertising

Writing skills: advertising

To raise awareness of the type of language used in advertising.

Aim: To raise awareness of the type of language used in advertising:

• extreme adjectives
• superlative phrases
• 'glowing' idioms
• travel vocabulary

To use the target language as a basis to write an effective advert for the student's own town or city.

Time: One hour

Materials

1) Four versions of the advertisement text (A, B, C and D)

2) Language Analysis and Practice - Advertisement Adjectives

3) Advertisement Idioms

4) Travel Vocabulary

5) Writing Practice

6) Answer Key

Lesson steps

1. Give out versions A, B, C and D (each text is gapped differently) so that students can later get into groups of four, with one A, one B etc. in each group.
2. Students look at their own gaps in the text and write appropriate questions (eight gaps in each version) to elicit the answer for each gap. 
3. Form groups of A, B, C and D. Students ask and answer each other's questions. (Total time for steps 1, 2 and 3 is 15 minutes)
4. Hand out Language Analysis and Practice (three sheets). Suggest they work through the three sheets individually and then come together to share their answers. You can leave students in these groups for theLanguage Analysis and Practice. Change the grouping after theLanguage Analysis exercise if you want a different dynamic of interaction. (15 minutes)
5. Give out Writing Practice and allow enough time for individuals to write their advert (15 minutes) with 10-15 minutes left over for 'selling' their town at the end of the lesson.

NOUN GENDER

NOUN GENDER

Nouns answer the questions "What is it?" and "Who is it?" 

They give names to things, people and qualities.

Examples

dog, bicycle, man, girl, beauty, truth, world.

NOUN GENDER

In general there is no distinction between masculine, feminine and neuter in English nouns. However, gender is sometimes shown by different forms or different words.

Examples

Different words:

Masculine	Feminine
man father uncle boy husband	woman mother aunt girl wife

Different forms:

Masculine

Feminine

actor prince hero waiter widower

actress princess heroine waitress widow Some nouns can be used for either a masculine or a feminine subject: Examples cousin teenager teacher doctor cook student parent friend relation colleague partner leader Mary is a doctor. She is a doctor Peter is a doctor. He is a doctor. Arthur is my cousin. He is my cousin. Jane is my cousin. She is my cousin. It is possible to make the distinction by adding the words 'male' or 'female'. a female student; a male cousin For professions, we can add the word 'woman' a woman doctor; a woman journalist. In some cases nouns describing things are given gender. I love my car. She (the car) is my greatest passion. France is popular with her (France's) neighbours at the moment. I travelled from England to New York on the Queen Elizabeth, she (the Queen Elizabeth) is a great ship.

ADVERBS OF DEGREE

ADVERBS OF DEGREE

Usage

Adverbs of degree tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another adverb.

Common adverbs of degree:

Almost, nearly, quite, just, too, enough, hardly, scarcely, completely, very, extremely.

Adverbs of degree are usually placed:

1. before the adjective or adverb they are modifying:
   e.g. The water was extremely cold.
2. before the main verb:
   e.g. He was just leaving. She has almost finished.

Examples

• She doesn't quite know what she'll do after university.
• They are completely exhausted from the trip.
• I am too tired to go out tonight.
• He hardly noticed what she was saying.

Enough, very, too

Enough as an adverb meaning 'to the necessary degree' goes after adjectives and adverbs.

Examples

• Is your coffee hot enough? (adjective)
• He didn't work hard enough. (adverb)

Too as an adverb meaning 'more than is necessary or useful' goes before adjectives and adverbs, e.g.

• This coffee is too hot. (adjective)
• He works too hard. (adverb)

Enough and too with adjectives can be followed by 'for someone/something'.

                                      Examples

• The dress was big enough for me.
• She's not experienced enough for this job.
• The coffee was too hot for me.
• The dress was too small for her.

We can also use 'to + infinitive' after enough and too with adjectives/adverb.

                                      Examples

• The coffee was too hot to drink.
• He didn't work hard enough to pass the exam.
• She's not old enough to get married.
• You're too young to have grandchildren!

Very goes before an adverb or adjective to make it stronger.

                                               Examples

• The girl was very beautiful. (adjective)
• He worked very quickly. (adverb)

If we want to make a negative form of an adjective or adverb, we can use a word of opposite meaning, or not very.

                                               Examples

• The girl was ugly OR The girl was not very beautiful
• He worked slowly OR He didn't work very quickly.

BE CAREFUL! There is a big difference between too and very.

• Very expresses a fact:
  He speaks very quickly.
• Too suggests there is a problem:
  He speaks too quickly (for me to understand).

Other adverbs like very

These common adverbs are used like very and not very, and are listed in order of strength, from positive to negative:

extremely, especially, particularly, pretty, rather, quite, fairly, rather, not especially, not particularly.

Note: rather can be positive or negative, depending on the adjective or adverb that follows:

Positive: The teacher was rather nice.

Negative: The film was rather disappointing.

                       Note on inversion with negative adverbs

Normally the subject goes before the verb:

SUBJECT	VERB
I She	left goes

However, some negative adverbs can cause an inversion - the order is reversed and the verb goes before the subject

                                                      Examples

• I have never seen such courage.  Never have I seen such courage.
• She rarely left the house.  Rarely did she leave the house.

Negative inversion is used in writing, not in speaking.

Other adverbs and adverbial expressions that can be used like this:

seldom, scarcely, hardly, not only .....

but also, no sooner .....

than, not until, under no circumstances.